bodyType

customContents

entityId

printArticlePageQuery

filter

article

body

urlAlias

articleSectionsContent

articleSeoArticle

articleSourceHeaderArticle

contentSchemaRenderContent

contentSubHeadlineContent

contentHeadlineContent

mainImagePrintArticleArticle

authorBlockPrintArticleArticle

contentSponsorTagContent

articlePianoPaywallContent

scmpYoutubeContent

hooksTrackPageViewArticle

query printArticlePageQuery(
  $entityId: String!
  $customContents: [CustomContentInput]
  $bodyType: BodyFormatTypeEnum
) {
  article(filter: {entityId: $entityId}) {
    entityId
    body(customContents: $customContents, type: $bodyType) {
      json
    }
    urlAlias
    ...articleSectionsContent
    ...articleSeoArticle_3o8td4
    ...articleSourceHeaderArticle
    ...contentSchemaRenderContent
    ...contentSubHeadlineContent
    ...contentHeadlineContent
    ...mainImagePrintArticleArticle
    ...authorBlockPrintArticleArticle
    ...contentSponsorTagContent
    ...articlePianoPaywallContent
    ...scmpYoutubeContent
    ...hooksTrackPageViewArticle
    id
  }
}

fragment articlePianoPaywallContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...hooksPaywallPromiseContent
}

fragment articleSectionsContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  sections {
    value {
      ...helpersCheckIfNewsSectionInFirstIndexSection
      ...entityLink
      name
      id
    }
  }
}

fragment articleSeoArticle_3o8td4 on Article {
  ...hooksArticleSeoArticle
  ...helpersCheckIsPostiesArticle
  ...helpersGetArticleTypeArticle
  entityId
  publishedDate
  updatedDate
  summary {
    text
  }
  subHeadline {
    text
  }
  body(customContents: $customContents, type: $bodyType) {
    text
  }
  keywords
  sections {
    value {
      name
      id
    }
  }
  topics {
    name
    entityId
    id
  }
  urlAlias
  authors {
    name
    id
  }
  images {
    style(filter: {style: "768x768"}) {
      url
    }
  }
  readingTime
}

fragment articleSourceHeaderArticle on Article {
  urlAlias
  ...entityLink
}

fragment authorBlockPrintArticleArticle on Article {
  ...defaultArticleDateContent
  ...authorNamesArticle
}

fragment authorNameAuthor on Author {
  ...entityLink
  name
  entityUuid
}

fragment authorNamesArticle on Article {
  authorLocations
  authors {
    entityId
    location
    ...authorNameAuthor
    id
  }
}

fragment blockquoteQuoteContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...contentShareWidgetContent
}

fragment checkersCheckContentContainsStarlingImageContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  topics {
    entityId
    id
  }
}

fragment contentHeadlineContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  headline
  socialHeadline
  ...contentHeadlineTagContent
  ...helpersUseContentSponsorContent
}

fragment contentHeadlineTagContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...hooksContentHeadlineTagContent
}

fragment contentNewsletterWidgetContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  topics {
    relatedNewsletters {
      ...helpersMassageToNewsletterItemNewsletter
      id
    }
    id
  }
  sections {
    value {
      relatedNewsletters {
        ...helpersMassageToNewsletterItemNewsletter
        id
      }
      id
    }
  }
  ... on Article {
    relatedNewsletters {
      ...helpersMassageToNewsletterItemNewsletter
      id
    }
  }
}

fragment contentSchemaRenderContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...blockquoteQuoteContent
  ...imageContent
  ...inlineWidgetContent
  ...photoGalleryWidgetContent
  ...scmpYoutubeContent
}

fragment contentShareWidgetContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  entityId
  urlAlias
  shortUrl
  socialHeadline
  headline
}

fragment contentSponsorTagContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...helpersUseContentSponsorContent
}

fragment contentSubHeadlineContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  subHeadline {
    json
  }
  summary {
    json
  }
  ...contentSchemaRenderContent
}

fragment defaultArticleDateContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...hooksArticleDateUtilsContent
}

fragment entityLink on BaseWithApplicationAndUrlAlias {
  __isBaseWithApplicationAndUrlAlias: __typename
  __typename
  entityId
  entityUuid
  urlAlias
  urlRedirect {
    toUrl
    id
  }
  application {
    entityId
    id
  }
  ... on Section {
    fullSectionPath {
      entityId
      id
    }
    parentSection
  }
  ...helpersAppBarVariantBase
  ...helpersApplicationBase
  ...helpersCheckIsPlusArticle
  ...helpersStyleSectionContent
}

fragment helpersAppBarVariantBase on BaseWithApplicationAndUrlAlias {
  __isBaseWithApplicationAndUrlAlias: __typename
  ...helpersCheckIsLiveArticle
  ...helpersCheckIsPlusPage
  ...helpersCheckIsPostiesArticle
  ...helpersCheckIsPostiesPage
  ...helpersCheckIsPostMagazineArticle
  ...helpersCheckIsStyleArticle
  ...helpersSectionContent
  ...helpersStyleSectionContent
}

fragment helpersApplicationBase on BaseWithApplicationAndUrlAlias {
  __isBaseWithApplicationAndUrlAlias: __typename
  ...helpersCheckIsPostiesArticle
  ...helpersCheckIsPostiesPage
  ...helpersCheckIsPlusPage
}

fragment helpersCheckIfNewsSectionInFirstIndexSection on Section {
  name
}

fragment helpersCheckIsAmpEnabledArticle on Article {
  entityId
  types {
    value {
      entityId
      id
    }
  }
  sections {
    value {
      entityId
      id
    }
  }
  disableOffPlatformContent
  sponsorType
  published
  ...helpersCheckIsPlusArticle
  ...helpersCheckIsPostiesArticle
}

fragment helpersCheckIsLiveArticle on Article {
  flattenTypeIds
  liveArticle {
    status
    id
  }
}

fragment helpersCheckIsMainTopicContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  topics {
    entityId
    id
  }
}

fragment helpersCheckIsPlusArticle on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ... on Article {
    paywallTypes {
      entityUuid
      id
    }
  }
}

fragment helpersCheckIsPlusPage on Page {
  urlAlias
}

fragment helpersCheckIsPostMagazineArticle on Article {
  sections {
    value {
      entityId
      id
    }
  }
}

fragment helpersCheckIsPostiesArticle on Article {
  sections {
    value {
      entityId
      id
    }
  }
}

fragment helpersCheckIsPostiesPage on Page {
  urlAlias
}

fragment helpersCheckIsStyleArticle on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  sections {
    value {
      entityId
      id
    }
  }
}

fragment helpersGetArticleTypeArticle on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ... on Article {
    types {
      value {
        entityId
        id
      }
    }
  }
}

fragment helpersMassageToNewsletterItemNewsletter on Newsletter {
  entityId
  name
  alternativeName
  description {
    text
  }
  summary {
    text
  }
  homepageDescription {
    text
  }
}

fragment helpersSanitizeArticleTypeEntityIdsArticle on Article {
  types {
    value {
      entityId
      id
    }
  }
}

fragment helpersSanitizeAuthorTypesArticle on Article {
  authors {
    types
    id
  }
}

fragment helpersSanitizedAuthorEntityIdsArticle on Article {
  authors {
    entityId
    id
  }
}

fragment helpersSectionContent on Section {
  fullSectionPath {
    entityId
    id
  }
}

fragment helpersStyleSectionContent on Section {
  fullSectionPath {
    entityId
    id
  }
}

fragment helpersUseContentSponsorContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  topics {
    entityId
    sponsor {
      ...sponsorTagSponsor
      name
      type
      id
    }
    id
  }
  ... on Article {
    sponsorType
  }
  ...helpersCheckIsMainTopicContent
}

fragment hooksArticleDateUtilsContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  createdDate
  publishedDate
  updatedDate
}

fragment hooksArticleSeoArticle on Article {
  ...helpersCheckIsPostiesArticle
  ...helpersCheckIsPostMagazineArticle
  ...helpersCheckIsStyleArticle
  ...hooksContentHeadlineTagContent
  ...helpersCheckIsAmpEnabledArticle
  entityId
  headline
  socialHeadline
  types {
    value {
      entityId
      id
    }
  }
  authors {
    entityId
    id
  }
  images {
    generic_og: style(filter: {style: "og_image_scmp_generic"}) {
      url
    }
    styles(filter: {styles: ["og_image_posties_article", "og_postmag", "og_image_style", "og_image_scmp_analysis", "og_image_scmp_explainer", "og_image_scmp_editorial", "og_image_scmp_fact_check", "og_image_scmp_debate", "og_image_scmp_live", "og_image_scmp_obituary", "og_image_scmp_opinion", "og_image_scmp_review", "og_image_scmp_series", "og_image_scmp_generic"]}) {
      url
      style
    }
    type
  }
  urlAlias
}

fragment hooksContentHeadlineTagContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  __typename
  ... on Article {
    types {
      value {
        name
        entityId
        description {
          text
        }
        id
      }
    }
    ...helpersCheckIsStyleArticle
  }
  flag
  sections {
    value {
      name
      id
    }
  }
  ...hooksContentHelperContent
}

fragment hooksContentHelperContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...helpersSanitizeArticleTypeEntityIdsArticle
  ...helpersSanitizeAuthorTypesArticle
  ...helpersSanitizedAuthorEntityIdsArticle
  flag
}

fragment hooksPaywallPromiseContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  entityId
  ...helpersCheckIsPostiesArticle
}

fragment hooksTrackPageViewArticle on Article {
  entityId
  publishedDate
  headline
  sections {
    value {
      name
      id
    }
  }
  urlAlias
  authors {
    name
    id
  }
  entityUuid
}

fragment imageContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  headline
  ...checkersCheckContentContainsStarlingImageContent
}

fragment inlineWidgetContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...contentNewsletterWidgetContent
}

fragment mainImagePrintArticleArticle on Article {
  images {
    title
    url
    isSlideshow
    size_652x446: style(filter: {style: "652x446"}) {
      url
    }
  }
}

fragment photoGalleryDialogContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  __typename
  ...contentShareWidgetContent
}

fragment photoGalleryWidgetContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  ...photoGalleryDialogContent
}

fragment scmpYoutubeContent on Content {
  __isContent: __typename
  entityId
  urlAlias
  publishedDate
}

fragment sponsorTagSponsor on Sponsor {
  name
  type
  images {
    url
  }
}


sections

types

disableOffPlatformContent

sponsorType

published

headline

socialHeadline

authors

images

publishedDate

updatedDate

summary

subHeadline

keywords

topics

readingTime

authorLocations

entityUuid

Chow Chung-yan

Chinese strategists love to draw lessons from the country’s rich history, just as Cesare Borgia inspired Niccolo Machiavelli in Renaissance Italy.
The downfall of Viscount Xiang of Zhi (Zhi Bo) in the fourth century BC was often told as a cautionary tale and an example of diplomacy over force.
Such a dramatic story bears retelling, and 2,473 years later, we can still learn a thing or two from it.
The powerful central kingdom of Jin, one of the hegemonic powers in the late Zhou dynasty, was on the brink of collapse. The ruler was a mere figurehead, with the kingdom in the hands of six powerful houses, or the Group of 6 of Jin if you like.
The House of Zhi was the most prominent among them. The young Viscount Zhi Bo was as dashing, charismatic and decisive as he was greedy, arrogant and forceful.
He coerced the other three houses to gang up on the two weakest ones, gobbling up their land and wealth.
Before the dust had settled, he turned to his former allies. “First, he approached Viscount Huan of Wei for land. Lord Wei was angry, but his minister persuaded him with this advice: ‘[Zhi Bo] demanded land from you without reason. Such action will arouse fear and distrust among others. If you concede, he would become even more greedy and arrogant. Such arrogance will create enemies … Then the days of the House of Zhi will be numbered.’” All this was recorded in The Strategies of the Warring States, written around 195BC [Translation my own].
As the minister foretold, Zhi Bo next asked Viscount Kang of Han to do the same. Han also complied.
With his appetite whetted, Zhi Bo turned to Viscount Xiang of Zhao. Lord Zhao was a principled leader with firm views. He refused.
Incensed, Zhi Bo forced the two other houses to join him to besiege Zhao in 455BC.
The House of Zhao marshalled a heroic resistance for two years. Zhi Bo then diverted the nearby Fen River to flood Jinyang, causing widespread death and starvation.
With victory in sight, Zhi Bo boasted, “I did not know before that water could be such a powerful weapon. I seem to recall there are rivers near Anyi and Pingyang.” Anyi and Pingyang were the seats of power for Wei and Han.
Standing nearby, Viscounts Wei and Han exchanged meaningful glances. Wei quietly elbowed Han and Han stepped on Wei.
But Zhi Bo’s minister observed all this and advised Zhi Bo to either attack Wei and Han immediately or increase their shares in the spoils of war to placate them. Zhi Bo shrugged off the advice, believing the two houses were too weak to challenge him.
That night, Lords Wei and Han conspired with a spy sent by Lord Zhao. They collapsed the river banks to flood the camp of the Zhi army and killed Zhi Bo in a surprise attack.
“The fate of the House of Zhi was thus sealed over the fearful glances and the nudging of elbows and heels [of its allies],” as The Strategies of the Warring States records.
Zhao, Han, and Wei cast off the pretence of being Jin’s vassals and established their own kingdoms. These acts initiated China’s Warring States Period (around 475-221BC).
Ancient strategists saw Zhi Bo’s downfall as a lesson in the abusive use of power and self-assured hubris.
The Strategies of the Warring States recorded Su Qin (3rd century BC), China’s Machiavelli, as saying: “Whoever prefers force [to diplomacy] will arouse fear in others. Whoever strives to dominate over others in an alliance will end up isolated.
“A wise ruler makes his moves later in the game, so he can assess others’ actions and leverage others’ efforts. He should distance himself from conflicts and bide his time for the right moment.” My translation does not do justice to the beauty of the original, but you get the point.
The renowned historian Sima Guang (1019-1086) began his monumental work of history with the story of Zhi Bo and the partition of Jin.
To Sima Guang, this event marked a watershed moment in history with the collapse of the old world order, giving rise to the Chinese idiom Li Beng Yue Huai, or “the breakdown of all rules and protocols”.
Before this, the mighty kings of the Zhou dynasty vied for supremacy but not total dominance. In the Spring and Autumn Period (771BC to 476BC), wars were limited in scale and interstate relations generally followed diplomatic protocols.
Five hegemonic states were established at different times, but none sought total domination. The hegemons saw themselves instead as keepers of agreed-upon interstate rules and order. The rise of bellicose rulers like Zhi Bo gradually undermined the stability of the interstate system.
The Zhou overlord was so weak that he could only accept the partition of his vessel, Jin, as a fait accompli. Instead of condemning Zhao, Wei and Han as usurpers, the House of Zhou congratulated them.
China entered the chaotic, if dynamic era of the Warring States, during which millions perished in incessant wars and social turmoil.
Today, the United Nations – established 80 years ago to uphold the world’s peace and order – is becoming increasingly inefficient and weak, as shown in the Ukraine and Gaza conflicts.
With most of the UN Security Council’s “five hegemons” either losing interest in maintaining global order or becoming too weakened, the kind of might-over-right diplomacy is back.
As we mark the 80th year of long peace since the end of the second world war, one cannot help but wonder if we, too, are headed towards a new era.


Could the start of China’s Warring States Period have lessons for the present day?

The war in Gaza has highlighted some of the UN’s failings. Photo: AP

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Opinion

China Opinion

The downfall of Zhi Bo in the ancient state of Jin is a study in the abuse of power and hubris that still echoes through history


The downfall of Zhi Bo in the ancient state of Jin is a study in the abuse of power and hubris that still echoes through history.


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United Nations

Expresses the views, ideas and conclusions of the author. (Eg. Enough of Crazy Rich Asians, think of crazy poor Hongkongers.)


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Opinion | Could the start of China’s Warring States Period have lessons for the present day?

The downfall of Zhi Bo in the ancient state of Jin is a study in the abuse of power and hubris that still echoes through history